Lower central La Paz, Bolivia, viewed from Laikacota Park

Nuestra Señora de La Paz is the administrative capital of Bolivia, as well as the departmental capital of La Paz Department, and the second largest city (in population) only after Santa Cruz de la Sierra.

It is located in the western part of the country in the department of the same name. It is located at an elevation of 3,650 m (11,975 ft) above sea level, making it the world’s highest “de facto” capital city, or administrative capital.

The official capital of Bolivia is Sucre and it is the seat of Justice, La Paz has more government departments, hence the “de facto” qualifier. The city sits in a “bowl” surrounded by the high mountains of the altiplano.

As it grows, La Paz climbs the hills, resulting in varying elevations from 3,000 meters to 4,100 meters (9,840 ft to 13,450 ft). Overlooking the city is towering triple-peaked Illimani, which is always snow-covered and can be seen from several spots of the city, including from the neighbor city, El Alto.

As of the 2001 census, the city had a population of 877,363. La Paz Metropolitan area, formed by the cities of La Paz, El Alto and Viacha, make the most populous urban area of Bolivia, with a population of 2.3 million inhabitants and surpassing the metropolitan area of Santa Cruz de la Sierra.

History

Founded in 1548 by the Spanish conquistadors at the site of the Native American settlement, Laja, the full name of the city was originally Nuestra Señora de La Paz (meaning Our Lady of Peace). The name commemorated the restoration of peace following the insurrection of Gonzalo Pizarro and fellow conquistadors four years earlier against Blasco Núñez Vela, the first viceroy of Peru. The city was later moved to its present location in the valley of Chuquiago Marka.

Control over the former Inca lands had been entrusted to Pedro de la Gasca by the Spanish king (and Holy Roman Emperor) Emperor Charles V. Gasca commanded Alonso de Mendoza to found a new city commemorating the end of the civil wars in Peru; the city of La Paz was founded on October 20, 1548.

In 1549, “Juan Gutierrez Paniagua” was commanded to design an urban plan that would designate sites for public areas, plazas, official buildings, and a cathedral. La Plaza de los Españoles, which is known today as the Plaza Murillo, was chosen as the location for government buildings as well as the Metropolitan Cathedral.

Colonial street in La Paz

Spain controlled La Paz with a firm grip and the Spanish king had the last word in all matters political. In 1781, for a total of six months, a group of Aymara people laid siege to La Paz. Under the leadership of Tupac Katari, they destroyed churches and government property. Thirty years later Indians laid a two-month siege on La Paz – where and when the legend of the Ekeko is set.

In 1809 the struggle for independence from the Spanish rule brought uprisings against the royalist forces. It was on July 16, 1809 that Pedro Domingo Murillo famously said that the Bolivian revolution was igniting a lamp that nobody would be able to turn-off. This formally marked the beginning of the Liberation of South America from Spain.

Pedro Domingo Murillo was hanged at the Plaza de los Españoles that night, but his name would be eternally remembered in the name of the plaza, and he would be remembered as the voice of revolution across South America.

In 1825, after the decisive victory of the republicans at Ayacucho over the Spanish army in the course of the Spanish American wars of independence, the city’s full name was changed to La Paz de Ayacucho (meaning The Peace of Ayacucho).

In 1898, La Paz was made the de facto seat of the national government, with Sucre remaining the nominal historical as well as judiciary capital. This change reflected the shift of the Bolivian economy away from the largely exhausted silver mines of Potosí to the exploitation of tin near Oruro, and resulting shifts in the distribution of economic and political power among various national elites.

Geography

La Paz is built in a canyon created by the Choqueyapu River (now mostly built over), which runs northwest to southeast. The city’s main thoroughfare, which roughly follows the river, changes names over its length, but the central tree-lined section running through the downtown core is called the Prado.

View of La Paz

The geography of La Paz (in particular the altitude) reflects society: the lower areas of the city are the more affluent areas. While many middle-class residents live in high-rise condos near the center, the houses of the truly affluent are located in the lower neighborhoods southwest of the Prado. And looking up from the center, the surrounding hills are plastered with makeshift brick houses of those of less economically fortunate.

The satellite city of El Alto, in which the airport is located, is spread over a broad area to the west of the canyon, on the Altiplano. La Paz is renowned for its unique markets, very unusual topography, and traditional culture.

La Paz is located in the valleys of the Andes, and is closer to the Eastern split of the Altiplano region. Therefore, it is closer to the famous mountains such as the Illimani (guardian of La Paz), Huayna Potosi, Mururata, and Illampu. On the Western side of the Altiplano divide, about an hour to the West of the La Paz, is the site of the tallest mountain in Bolivia and 9th tallest mountain in the Andes, the Sajama Volcano.

In July 1994, an earthquake rated at 8.2 struck just 200 miles north of La Paz, the largest earthquake since the Sumbawa earthquake of 1977. Part of the water supply is derived from glaciers, which are becoming a less reliable source of water.

Districts

The city is divided into seven main districts, called “Macro Distritos”, which at the same time are divided into 21 small districts or zones. The city is commonly divided by the people into three main zones: South Zone, Central Zone and North Zone.

• 1st Main District: Cotahuma: San Jorge, Sopocachi, Alto Sopocachi (Sopocachi Highlands), Pasankeri, Tembladerani, Llojeta, Alpacoma, Belén, Tacagua, San Pedro, Alto San Pedro (San Pedro Highlands)
• 2nd Main District: Max Paredes: Gran Poder, Obispo Indaburu, Villa Victoria, El Tejar, Alto Tejar, Chamoco Chico, Munaypata, Pura Pura, Ciudadela Ferroviaria
• 3rd Main District: Periférica: Limanipata, Achachicala, Vino Tinto, 25 de Mayo, 5 Dedos, Santiago de Lacaya, Rosasani, La Merced, Chuquiaguillo
• 4th Main District: San Antonio: Villa de Copacabana, Villa Armonía, Villa San Antonio, Kupini, Callapa, Pampahasi, San Isidro
• 5th Main District: Distrito Sur (South District): Irpavi, Bolonia, Alto Irpavi, Koani, Achumani, Achumani-Meseta, Alto Achumani, Calacoto, Alto Calacoto, Cotacota, Chasquipampa, Ovejuyo, Obrajes, Alto Obrajes, Bajo LLojeta, Bella Vista, Alto Seguencoma, Bajo Seguencoma.
• 6th Main District: Mallasa: Amor de Dios, Aranjuez, Mallasilla, Isla Verde, Mallasa, Jupapina, Comunidad Chiaraque.
• 7th Main District: Distrito Centro (Central District): El Rosario, San Sebastián, Santa Bárbara, Casco Urbano Central, Parque Urbano Central, Miraflores, Casco Viejo

Main Neighborhoods and Zones

• San Jorge: located on the 1st District (Cotahuma) and near Sopocachi, it is one of the main residential and diplomatic areas of the city. In contains several buildings, both residential and offices, and embassies, including the Spain Embassy, the United States Embassy, the United Kingdom Embassy and others. One of the main avenues of the city, Arce Avenue, starts on this zone.
• Sopocachi: located in the 1st District (Cotahuma), Sopocachi is probably one of the oldest residential neighborhoods, located 10 minutes away from the center of the city. Despite the expansion and development of the area, this quarter maintained its residential property. In the last years, there has been an important commercial expansion, mainly on the surroundings of Abaroa Square, one of the many squares and parks of the zone.
• San Pedro: located on the 1st District (Cotahuma), on the right bank of the Choqueyapu River and built around the “Plaza de San Pedro” (official name: Plaza Sucre, Sucre Square), is home to numerous shops, businesses and small enterprises, especially printing, spare parts and auto maintenance and repair shops. San Pedro’s “Rodriguez Market” remains as one of the most popular middle-class and oldest of the city. The San Pedro prison is located here.
• Centro: (Downtown) is located on the 7th District and comprises the center of La Paz and principal avenues of the city, like Arce Avenue, July 16 Avenue (also known as “Prado Avenue”), Mariscal Santa Cruz Avenue and Camacho Avenue, this last one being the home of the headquarters of the principal banks and companies of the country.


Plaza de Armas / Plaza Murillo

• Casco Viejo: located on the 7th District, is the historic and ancient center of La Paz. It now houses museums, hotels, shops and buildings as the Mayor City of La Paz and the Central Bank of Bolivia. In the Old Quarter is the Plaza Murillo, which is home to the Government Palace and the National Congress.
• Miraflores: located on the 7th District, Miraflores district is separated from downtown by a long barrel (called Parque Urbano Central, Central Urban Park) and connected by the Bridge of the Americas and two avenues. Originally a residential zone, its growth has led it to become a major recreational center. It houses universities (including the Universidad Mayor de San Andrés’s faculty of medicine), hospitals and the Estadio Hernando Siles(capacity of 45,000 people).
• Northern District: located on the 2nd and 3rd districts, it has a significant industrial activity (mainly food), being the Cervecería Boliviana Nacional (Bolivian National Brewery) the most significant industry founded by Germans, and one of the city’s biggest companies in the country. It connects La Paz with the city of El Alto by the “autopista”or Highway.
• Southern District: located on the 5th district has less height than the rest of La Paz (3,200 to 2,800 meters). This area houses the most affluent and exclusive neighborhoods of the city, like Calacoto, La Florida and Achumani, among others. It has been benefited from steady economic growth and is now the second commercial and financial center of the city, housing international firms like Moody’s, Citibank, Aon Corporation, Huawei, Millicom International Cellular, Nissan Motor Corporation represented by Taiyo Motors, Pan American Silver Corporation, a Sumitomo Corporation branch, Ernst & Young, and the “MegaCenter”, Bolivia’s biggest shopping mall (52.000 mts2 of construction).

Climate

Under the Köppen climate classification, La Paz has a subtropical highland climate. Owing to the altitude of the city, temperatures are consistently cool throughout the year, though the diurnal temperature variation is typically large.

The city has a relatively dry climate, with rainfall occurring mainly in the slightly warmer months of November to March. The sun passes directly overhead in late October and mid February.

Economy

The economy of La Paz has improved greatly in recent years, mainly as a result of improved political leaders. Due to the long period of high inflation and economic struggle faced by Bolivians in the 1980s and early 1990s, a large Informal Economy developed. Evidence of this is provided by the markets found all around the city.

While there are stable markets, almost every street in the downtown area and surrounding neighborhoods has at least one vendor on it. La Paz remains the principal center of manufacturing enterprises that produce finished-product goods for the country, with about two-thirds of Bolivia’s manufacturing located nearby.

Historically, industry in Bolivia has been dominated by mineral processing and the preparation of agricultural products. However, in the urban centre of La Paz, small plants carry out a large portion of the industry. Food, tobacco products, clothing, various consumer goods, building materials, and agricultural tools are produced.

Main sights

Museums and cultural centers

The former home of Pedro Domingo Murillo, martyr of the independence revolution of 1809, has been preserved and is now a museum. The house displays a collection of furniture, textiles, and art from colonial times.

Museo Costumbrista: Displays ceramic dolls wearing traditional customs that show how was life in the early 19th century. Also on display are photos of old La Paz.

Museo Nacional de Arqueología (Nacional Museum of Archeology): Depicts a collection of artifacts of the Tiawanaku culture.

Museo del Litoral (Museum of the Coastal Region): Displays objects from the 1879 war in which Bolivia lost its sea coast to Chile.

Museo del Oro (Gold Museum): Depicts pre-Conquest works made of gold, silver and copper.

Museo de Etnografía y Folklore (Ethnography and Folkolore Museum): Placed in a house built in the late 18th century, it exhibits customs and art of two ethnic groups: Chipayas and Ayoreos.

Museo del Charango (Museum of Charango): Located in Calle Linares, the museum displays an incredible variety of charangos. Other native instruments are displayed as well.

Museo de Historia Natural (Natural History Museum): Exhibits on Bolivia’s paleontology, geology, paleontology, zoology, and botany.

Casa Museo Marina Nuñez del Prado (Marina Nuñez del Prado House Museum): Displays Quechua and Aymara-theme sculptures by Bolivian artist Marina Nuñez del Prado.

San Francisco Church

Museo Nacional de Arte (National Art Museum): Located in calle Comercio, on a former palace built in 1775, displays works by Melchor Perez de Holguín and Marina Nuñez del Prado, among others.

Mercado de Brujas (Witches’ Market): Merchandise sold here includes herbs, remedies as well as other ingredients used in Aymara traditions.

Feria de Alasitas: This fair is celebrated each year on January 24 in honor of a little god of abundance known as Ekeko, which means dwarf in Aymara.

Churches and cathedrals

Metropolitan Cathedral, built in 1835 and located next to the Presidential Palace, on Murillo Square;
San Francisco Church, founded in 1548 and rebuilt 1784.

Others

Bolivian Presidential Palace, also known as “Burned Palace”.
Parque Urbano Central (Central Urban Park)

Local festivities

• January 24: Alasitas,in all neighborhoods
• February 2: Virgen de Copacabana, (Villa Copacabana)
• May 1: San José Obrero (V. Nuevo Potosí)
• May 3: Señor de la Santa Cruz (Calvario, Tacagua, Calacoto)
• May 13: Virgen de Fátima (Villa Fátima)
• May 14: San Isidro, Labrador (San Isidro)
• May 17: Señor de la Sentencia (Villa Armonía)
• May: Jesus, Señor del Gran Poder (movible, Gran Poder)
• June 13: San Antonio de Padua (San Antonio)
• June 24: San Juan Bautista (Valle Hermoso, San Juan)
• June 29: San Pedro Apóstol (San Pedro)
• July 16: Virgen del Carmen, Patroness of Bolivia and the Armed Forces of the Nation Efemerides of La Paz
• July 25: Apóstol Santiago (Munaypata, Pampahasi, Pasankeri, Periférica, Alto Delicias)
• August 15: Virgen de Urqupiña (Urkupiña)
• August 15: Virgen de la Asunción (Villa Victoria)
• September 8: Virgen de las Nieves (V. Copacabana, M. Paredes, La Portada, Achachicala, Alto Irpavi, Cotahuma, Las Nieves)
• September 8: Virgen de los Remedios (Miraflores)
• September 14: Señor de la Exaltación (Obrajes, G. de Lima, Bajo Tejar, Vino Tinto)
• September 24: Virgen de la Merced (Cota Cota)
• October 7: Virgen del Rosario (El Rosario)
• November: Cristo Rey (Pura Pura)
• December 4: Santa Barbara (Santa Bárbara, Llojeta)
• December 8: Virgen de la Concepción (Kupini, Sopocachi, Achumani)

Coat of arms of Bolivia

The coat of arms of Bolivia has a central cartouche surrounded by Bolivian flags, muskets, laurel branches, and has an Andean condor on top.

The central cartouche has a border with ten stars in the bottom, which symbolize the nine Departamentos and the former province Litoral that was taken over by Chile in 1879, and the name of Bolivia in the top section.

Within the border the silver mountain Potosí — recognized by a mine entrance — is depicted, with a sun rising above it, and with an alpaca standing next to a palm tree and some wheat.

The alpaca stands on a plain that contrasts with the mountain. The mountain and its contrast with the plains are indicative of the geography of Bolivia. The alpaca is the national animal, and the items next to it are symbolic of the resources of the nation.

Around the shield there are three Bolivian flags on each side. Behind these are two pairs of crossed rifles that symbolize the struggle for independence. Next to the muskets there are an axe and a red Phrygian hood, which is the symbol of liberty and freedom.

The laurel branches are symbolic of peace, and the condor perched upon the shield is symbolic of a willingness to defend the nation and its liberty.

In some depictions of these coat of arms, the two pairs of muskets are replaced by two cannons. Other depictions also have more realistic symbols in the shield.

The Bolivian state flag features the coat of arms in its center.

Bolivian state flag and ensign

The current flag of Bolivia was originally adopted by Bolivia in 1851. The state flag and ensign (and war flag) is a horizontal tricolor of red, yellow, and green with the Bolivian coat of arms in the center. According to one source, the red stands for Bolivia’s brave soldiers, while the green symbolizes fertility and yellow the nation’s mineral deposits.

According to the new constitution, the Wiphala is considered a national symbol of Bolivia (along with the flag, national anthem, coat of arms, the cockade; kantuta flower and patujú flower).

Despite its landlocked status, Bolivia has a naval ensign used by navy vessels on rivers and lakes. It consists of a blue field with the state flag in the canton bordered by nine small yellow five-pointed stars, with a larger yellow five-pointed star in the fly. The nine small stars represent the nine departments of Bolivia, and the larger star the nation’s right to access the sea (access that it lost in 1884 in the War of the Pacific).

Other Flags

The civil ensign and flag of Bolivia

Naval ensign of Bolivia

Historical Flags

Bandera Menor (1825–1826)

Flag of the Bolivian Republic between 1825 and 1826

Bandera Menor (1826–1851)

Flag of the Bolivian Republic 1826-1851

Bolivian Armed Forces flag (until 2010)

Potosí

Potosí is a city and the capital of the department of Potosí in Bolivia. It is one of the highest cities in the world by elevation at a nominal 4,090 metres (13,420 ft) and it was the location of the Spanish colonial mint, now the National Mint of Bolivia.

Potosí lies beneath the Cerro de Potosí—sometimes referred to as the Cerro Rico (“rich mountain”) — a mountain popularly conceived of as being “made of” silver ore, which has always dominated the city.

The Cerro Rico is the reason for Potosí’s historical importance, since it was the major supply of silver for Spain during the period of the New World Spanish Empire. This silver was taken by llama and mule train to the Spanish Main whence it was then taken to Spain on the Spanish treasure fleets. Cerro de Potosí’s peak is 4,824 metres (15,827 ft) above sea level.

History and Silver Extraction

Manuel Rivera-Ortiz: widow of the Mines, Potosí, Bolivia 2004

Founded in 1546 as a mining town, it soon produced fabulous wealth, becoming one of the largest cities in the Americas and the world, with a population exceeding 200,000 people.

In Spanish there is still a saying, valer un potosí, “to be worth a potosí” (that is, “a fortune”). For Europeans, Peru—Bolivia was part of the Viceroyalty of Peru and was known as Alto Perú before becoming independent—was a mythical land of riches.

Potosí appears as an idiom for “extraordinary richness” in Miguel de Cervantes’ famous novel, Don Quixote (second part, cap. LXXI). One theory holds that the mint mark of Potosí (the letters “PTSI” superimposed on one another) is the origin of the dollar sign.

It is from Potosí that most of the silver shipped through the Spanish Main came. According to official records,[citation needed] 45,000 short tons (41,000 metric tons) of pure silver were mined from Cerro Rico from 1556 to 1783. Of this total, 9,000 short tons (8,200 metric tons) went to the Spanish monarchy. Due to such extensive mining, the mountain itself has diminished in height; before the mining started it was a few hundred metres higher than it is today.

Indian laborers, forced by Francisco de Toledo, Count of Oropesa through the traditional Incan mita institution of contributed labor, came to die by the millions, not simply from exposure and brutal labor, but by mercury poisoning: in the patio process the silver-ore, having been crushed to powder by hydraulic machinery, was cold-mixed with mercury and trodden to an amalgamation by the native workers with their bare feet. The mercury was then driven off by heating, producing deadly vapors.

According to Noble David Cook,

“A key factor in understanding the impact of the Potosi mita on the Indians is that mita labor was only one form of work at the mines. A 1603 report stated that of 58,800 Indians working at Potosi, 5100 were mitayos, or less than one in ten. In addition to the mitayos there were 10,500 mingas (contractual workers) and 43,200 free wage earners. Yet mitayos were required to do the work others refused: predominantly the transport of the ore up the shafts to the mouth of the mine.”

To compensate for the diminishing indigenous labor force, the colonists made a request in 1608 to the Crown in Madrid to begin allowing the importation of 1,500 to 2,000 African slaves per year. An estimated total of 30,000 African slaves were taken to Potosí during the colonial era.

African slaves were also forced to work in the Casa de la Moneda (mint) as acémilas humanas (human mules). Since mules would die after a couple of months pushing the mills, the colonists replaced the four mules with twenty African slaves.

In 1672, a mint was established to coin silver and water reservoirs were built to fulfill the growing population’s needs. At that time more than eighty-six churches were built and the city’s population increased to nearly 200,000, making it one of the largest and wealthiest cities in the world.

After 1800, the silver mines were depleted, making tin the main product. This eventually led to a slow economic decline. Nevertheless, the mountain continues to be mined for silver to this day.

Potosí, aerial view

Due to poor worker conditions (lack of protective equipment from the constant inhalation of dust), the miners still have a short life expectancy with most of them contracting silicosis and dying around 40 years of age.[citation needed] It is estimated that hundreds of thousands of Indians died under the harsh working conditions.

During the Bolivian War of Independence (1809–1825), Potosí frequently passed between the control of Royalist and Patriot forces. Major blunders by the First Auxiliary Army from Buenos Aires (under the command of Juan José Castelli) led to an increased sense that independence was needed and fostered resentment towards him. During that occupation there was anarchy and martial excess, and Potosí became unfriendly to the point where it could not be defended.

When the second auxiliary army arrived, it was received well and the commander, Manuel Belgrano, did much to heal the past wounds inflicted by the tyrannical Castelli. When that army was forced to retreat, Belgrano took the calculated decision to blow up the Casa de la Moneda. Since the locals refused to evacuate, the explosion would have resulted in many casualties.

The fuse was lit, but disaster was averted by locals who put the fuse out. Two more expeditions from Buenos Aires would seize Potosí.

Origin of the Name

There is no authoritative etymology for the word “Potosí.” According to legend, in about 1462, Huayna Capac, the eleventh Sapa Inca of what by then was known as the Inca Empire “set out for Ccolque Porco and Andaccaua, the location of his mines from which were taken innumerable arrobas of silver” (an arroba is a Spanish unit of weight equivalent to approximately 25 pounds (11 kg)).

“Before leaving there, he saw [Potosí], and admiring its beauty and grandeur, he said (speaking to those of his Court): ‘This doubtless must have much silver in its heart’; whereby he subsequently ordered his vassals to go to Ccolque Porco … and work the mines and remove from them all the rich metal. They did so, and having brought their tools of flint and reinforced wood, they climbed the hill; and after having probed for its veins, they were about to open those veins when they heard a frightening thunderous noise which shook the whole hill, and after this, they heard a voice which said: ‘Do not take the silver from this hill, because it is destined for other masters.’ Amazed at hearing this reasoning, the Incan vassals desisted in their purpose and returned to Porco and told the king what had happened; relating the occurrence in their own language, on coming to the word noise, they said ‘Potocsí’ which means there was a great thunderous noise, and from that later was derived (corrupting a letter) the name of potosí.”

It is believed that “Potosí” is a Quechua word.[citation needed] However, in Quechua the phoneme p’otoj does not refer to a thunderous noise, whereas it does in Aymara. Thus, if Potosí encompasses the idea of a thunderous noise, the locution would have an Aymaran root rather than a Quechuan.

The actual sharp structure of the term is contrary to the nature of both Aymara and Quechua. Another explanation, given by several Quechua speakers, is that potoq is an onomatopoeic word that reproduces the sound of the hammer against the ore, and oral tradition has it that the town derived its name from this word.

Legacy

The city of San Luis Potosí in Mexico was named after Potosí in Bolivia. In the United States, the name Potosi was optimistically given to lead-mining towns of Potosi, Wisconsin and Potosi, Missouri, and also to the silver-mining town of Potosi, Nevada.

Dried surface of the Salar

Salar de Uyuni (or Salar de Tunupa) is the world’s largest salt flat at 10,582 square kilometers (4,086 sq mi). It is located in the Potosí and Oruro departments in southwest Bolivia, near the crest of the Andes, and is elevated 3,656 meters (11,995 ft) above the mean sea level.

The Salar was formed as a result of transformations between several prehistoric lakes.

It is covered by a few meters of salt crust, which has an extraordinary flatness with the average altitude variations within one meter over the entire area of the Salar. The crust serves as a source of salt and covers a pool of brine, which is exceptionally rich in lithium. It contains 50 to 70% of the world’s lithium reserves, which is in the process of being extracted.

The large area, clear skies and exceptional surface flatness make the Salar an ideal object for calibrating the altimeters of the Earth observation satellites.

The Salar serves as the major transport route across the Bolivian Altiplano and is a major breeding ground for several species of pink flamingos.

Formation, Geology and Climate

Salar de Uyuni viewed from space, with Salar de Coipasa in the top left corner.

Salar de Uyuni is part of the Altiplano of Bolivia in South America. The Altiplano is a high plateau, which was formed during uplift of the Andes mountains. The plateau includes fresh and saltwater lakes as well as salt flats and is surrounded by mountains with no drainage outlets.

The geological history of the Salar is associated with a sequential transformation between several vast lakes. Some 30,000–42,000 years ago, the area was part of a giant prehistoric lake, Lake Minchin. Its age was estimated from radiocarbon dating of shells from outcropping sediments and carbonate reefs and varies between reported studies.

Lake Minchin (named after the Juan B. Minchin of Oruro) later transformed into paleolake Tauca having a maximal depth of 140 meters (460 ft), and an estimated age of 13,000–18,000 or 14,900–26,100 years depending on the source. The youngest prehistoric lake was Coipasa, which was radiocarbon dated to 11,500–13,400 years. When it dried, it left behind two modern lakes, Poopó Lake and Uru Uru Lake, and two major salt deserts, Salar de Coipasa and the larger Salar de Uyuni.

Salar de Uyini spreads over 10,582 square kilometers (4,086 sq mi), which is roughly 25 times the size of the Bonneville Salt Flats in the United States. Lake Poopó is a neighbor of the much larger lake Titicaca. During the wet season, Titicaca overflows and discharges into Poopó, which, in turn, floods Salar De Coipasa and Salar de Uyuni.

Location of Salar de Uyuni, Bolivia

Underneath the surface of the Salar is a lake of brine 2 to 20 meters (7 to 66 ft) deep. The brine is a saturated solution of table salt, lithium chloride and magnesium chloride in water. It is covered with a solid salt crust with a thickness varying between tens of centimeters to a few meters.

The center of the Salar contains a few “islands”, which are the remains of the tops of ancient volcanoes which were submerged during the era of lake Minchin. They include unusual and fragile coral-like structures and deposits that often consist of fossils and algae.

The area has a relatively stable average temperature with a peak at 21 °C (70 °F) in November–January and a low of 13 °C (55 °F) in June. The nights are however cold all through the year with temperatures between -9 and 5 °C (16 and 41 °F).

The relative humidity is rather low and constant throughout the year at 30–45 %. The rainfall is also low at 1–3 millimeters (0.039–0.12 in) per month between April and November, but it may increase up to 70 millimeters (2.8 in) in January. However, except for January, even in the rainy season the number of rainy days is below 5 per month.

Economic Influence

Salt production at the Salar

The Salar contains large amounts of sodium, potassium, lithium and magnesium (all in the chloride forms of NaCl, KCl, LiCl and MgCl2, respectively), as well as borax. Of those, lithium is arguably most important as it is a vital component of many electric batteries.

With an estimated 5,400,000 tonnes (5,310,000 long tons; 5,950,000 short tons), Bolivia holds about half of the world’s lithium reserves; most of those are located in the Salar de Uyuni.

Lithium is concentrated in the brine under the salt crust at a relatively high concentration of about 0.3%. It is also present in the top layers of the porous halite body lying under the brine; however the liquid brine is easier to extract, by boring into the crust and pumping out the brine. The brine distribution has been monitored by the Landsat satellite and confirmed in ground drilling tests.

Following those findings, an American-based international corporation has invested $137 million to develop lithium extraction. However, lithium extraction in the 1980s and 1990s by foreign companies met strong opposition of the local community. Despite their poverty, locals believed that the money infused by mining would not reach them.

There is currently no mining plant at the site, and the Bolivian government doesn’t want to allow exploitation by foreign corporations. Instead, it intends to build its own pilot plant with a modest annual production of 1,200 tonnes (1,200 long tons; 1,300 short tons) of lithium and to increase it to 30,000 tonnes (30,000 long tons; 33,000 short tons) tonnes by 2012.

Salar de Uyuni is estimated to contain 10 billion tonnes (9.8 billion LT; 11 billion ST) tonnes of salt, of which less than 25,000 tonnes (25,000 long tons; 28,000 short tons) is extracted annually. All miners working in the Salar belong to Colchani’s cooperative.

Because of its location, large area and flatness, the Salar is a major car transport route across the Bolivian Altiplano.

Name

Salar is salt flat in Spanish and Uyuni originates from the Aymara language and means a pen (enclosure). Thus Salar de Uyuni can be loosely translated as a salt flat with enclosures, the latter possibly referring to the “islands” of the Salar. Uyuni is also the name for a town of 10,600 people, which serves as a gateway for tourists visiting the Salar.

Aymara legend tells that the mountains Tunupa, Kusku and Kusina, which surround the Salar, were giant people. Tunupa married Kusku, but Kusku ran away from her with Kusina. Grieving Tunupa started to cry while breast-feeding her son. Her tears mixed with milk and formed the Salar. Many locals consider the Tunupa an important deity and say that the place should be called Salar de Tunupa rather than Salar de Uyuni.

Flora and Fauna

Andean flamingos in the Laguna Colorada, south of the Salar

The Salar is virtually devoid of any wild life and vegetation. The latter is dominated by giant cacti (Echinopsis atacamensis pasacana, Echinopsis tarijensis, etc.). They grow at a rate of about 1 centimeter (0.39 in) per year to a length of about 12 meters (39 ft).

Other shrubs include Pilaya, which is used by locals to cure catarrh, and Thola (Baccharis dracunculifolia), which is burned as a fuel. Also present are quinoa plants and quenua bushes.

Every November, Salar de Uyuni is the breeding grounds for three species of pink South American flamingos: the Chilean, Andean and rare James’s Flamingos, their color presumably originating from feeding on pink algae. There are about 80 of other bird species present, including the horned coot, the Andean goose and the Andean Hillstar.

Andean fox (culpeo) is a representative animal, and the “islands” of Salar (in particular the Incahuasi island, which is also called Isla del Pescadores) host a colony of rabbit-like viscachas.

Tourism

Hotels

Traditional salt production at Salar — such salt blocks are used for building salt hotels

Salar de Uyuni attracts tourists from around the world. As it is located far from the cities, a number of hotels have been built in the area. Due to lack of conventional construction materials, many of them are almost entirely (walls, roof, furniture) built with salt blocks cut from the Salar.

The first such hotel was erected in 1993-1995 in the middle of the salt flat, and soon became a popular tourist destination. However, its location in the center of a desert produced sanitary problems, as most waste had to be collected manually. Mismanagement caused serious environmental pollution and the hotel had to be dismantled in 2002.

New salt hotels were built near the periphery of the Salar, closer to roads, in full compliance with environmental rules.

Train Cemetary

One major tourist attraction is an antique train cemetery. It is 3 kilometers (1.9 mi) outside Uyuni and is connected to it by the old train tracks. The town served in the past as a distribution hub for the trains carrying minerals enroute to Pacific Ocean ports.

The rail lines were built by British engineers arriving near the end of the 19th century and formed a sizeable community in Uyuni. The engineers were invited by British-sponsored Antofagasta and Bolivia Railway Companies, which is now Ferrocarril de Antofagasta a Bolivia.

The rail construction started in 1888 and ended in 1892. It was encouraged by Bolivian President Aniceto Arce, who believed Bolivia would flourish with a good transport system, but it was also constantly sabotaged by the local Aymara indigenous Indians who saw it as an intrusion into their lives. The trains were mostly used by the mining companies.

In the 1940s, the mining industry collapsed, partly because of mineral depletion. Many trains were abandoned, producing the train cemetery. There are proposals to build a museum from the cemetery.

Satellite Calibration

When covered with water, the Salar becomes one of the largest mirrors on Earth

Salt flats are ideal for calibrating the distance measurement equipment of satellites because they are large, stable surfaces with strong reflection, similar to that of ice sheets. As the largest salt flat on Earth, Salar de Uyuni is especially suitable for this purpose.

In the low-rain period of from April to November, due to the absence of industry and its high elevation the skies above Salar de Uyuni are very clear, and the air is dry (relative humidity is about 30%, rainfall is roughly 1 millimetre or 0.039 inches per month).

It has a stable surface which is smoothed by seasonal flooding (water dissolves the salt surface and thus keeps it leveled). As a result, the variation in the surface elevation over the 10,582-square-kilometer (4,086 sq mi) area of Salar de Uyuni is less than 1 meter (3 ft 3 in), and there are few square kilometers on Earth which are as flat. The surface reflectivity (albedo) for ultraviolet light is relatively high at 0.69 and shows variations of only a few percent during the daytime.

Combination of all these features make Salar de Uyuni about five times better for satellite calibration than the surface of an ocean. Using Salar de Uyuni as the target, ICESat has already achieved the short-term elevation measurement accuracy of below 2 centimeters (0.79 in).

With the use of modern GPS technology, it can now be proved that the Salar de Uyuni is not perfectly flat. New measurements revealed previously missed features resembling ridges, hills, and valleys measuring only millimeters in height.

They originate from the variation in material density, and thus the gravitational force, beneath the Salar’s sediments. Just as the ocean surface rises over denser seamounts, the salt flat surface also rises and falls to reflect the subsurface density variations.

The Yungas Road, as it descends into the rainforest.

The North Yungas Road (alternatively known as Grove’s Road, Coroico Road, Camino de las Yungas, El Camino de la Muerte, Road of Death or Death Road) is a 61-kilometre (38 mi) or 69-kilometre (43 mi) road leading from La Paz to Coroico, 56 kilometres (35 mi) northeast of La Paz in the Yungas region of Bolivia.

It is legendary for its extreme danger and in 1995 the Inter-American Development Bank christened it as the “world’s most dangerous road”. One estimate is that 200 to 300 travellers are killed yearly along the road. The road includes crosses marking many of the spots where vehicles have fallen.

A South Yungas Road (Chulumani Road) exists that connects La Paz to Chulumani, 64 kilometres (40 mi) east of La Paz, and is considered to be nearly as dangerous as the North Road.

Description

The road was built in the 1930s during the Chaco War by Paraguayan prisoners. It is one of the few routes

Yungas Road at San Pedro waterfall.

that connects the Amazon rainforest region of northern Bolivia, or Yungas, to its capital city. Upon leaving La Paz, the road first ascends to around 4,650 metres (15,260 ft) at La Cumbre Pass, before descending to 1,200 metres (3,900 ft) at the town of Coroico, transiting quickly from cool Altiplano terrain to rainforest as it winds through very steep hillsides and atop cliffs.

Because of the extreme dropoffs of at least 600 meters (1,830 feet), single-lane width – most of the road no wider than 3.2 metres (10 ft) and lack of guard rails, the road is extremely dangerous. Further still, rain, fog and dust can reduce visibility. In many places the road surface is muddy, and can loosen rocks from the road.

One of the local road rules specifies that the downhill driver never has the right of way and must move to the outer edge of the road. This forces fast vehicles to stop so that passing can be negotiated safely. Also, vehicles drive on the left, as opposed to the right like the rest of Bolivia. This gives a left hand drive vehicle’s driver a better view over his outside wheel, making passing safer.

On 24 July 1983, a bus veered off the Yungas Road and into a canyon, killing more than 100 passengers in what is said to be Bolivia’s worst road accident.

Attraction

The danger of the road ironically made it a popular tourist destination starting in the 1990s, drawing some 25,000 thrillseekers. Mountain biking enthusiasts in particular have made it a favourite destination for downhill biking since there is a 64-kilometre (40 mi) stretch of continuous downhill riding with only one short uphill section.

There are now many tour operators catering to this activity, providing information, guides, transport, and equipment. Nevertheless, the Yungas Road remains dangerous. At least 18 cyclists died on the ride since 1998.

It is featured on the BBC show, Top Gear: Bolivia Special (Episode 6 of Top Gear series 14) where the hosts travelled 1,610 kilometres (1,000 mi) from the Bolivian rainforest to the Pacific Ocean.

Replacement Route

The Yungas Road was modernized during a 20 year period ending in 2006. The modernization included enlarging the carriageway from one to two lanes, constructing asphalt pavement, and building a new section between Chusquipata and Yolosa, bypassing to the north one of the most dangerous sections of the old ‘Death Road’.

This new route features modern construction (bridges, drainage, etc.), multiple lanes, pavement, guardrails, and many other elements that make it considerably safer than the original route.

The original North Yungas Road is currently much less used by traffic, although an increasing number of adventure travelers bike it for the thrills.

Santuario de la Virgen del Socavón en los Carnavales 2007 "Shrine of Our Lady of the Tunnel in the 2007 Carnival"

Oruro is a city in Bolivia with a population of 235,393 (2010 calculation), located about equidistant between La Paz and Sucre at approximately 3710 meters above sea level. It is the capital of the department of Oruro.

The city was first founded on November 1, 1606 by Don Manuel Castro de Padilla. as a silver mining center in the Urus region. At the time, it was named Real Villa de San Felipe de Austria after the Spanish monarch, Philip III. It was eventually abandoned as the silver mines became exhausted.

Oruro was reestablished in the late nineteenth century, as a tin mining center. For a time, the La Salvadora tin mine was the most important source of tin in the world. Gradually, this resource was also exhausted, and Oruro again went into a decline.

The city does manage, however, to attract tourists to its carnival, the Carnaval de Oruro, considered one of the great folkloric events in South America for its masked ” diablada”.

Oruro was named after the native tribe “Uru-Uru”.

The city is the seat of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Oruro. The Oruro Symphony Orchestra is based in Oruro. Aymara painter and printmaker Alejandro Mario Yllanes (1913–1960) was born here.

Main attractions

Carnaval de Oruro 2007

• Museo Patiño, former residence of “tin baron” Simón Iturri Patiño
  Museo Mineralógico (Mineralogical Museum): has exhibits of precious stones, minerals, and fossils
• Museo Etnográfico Minero (Ethnographical Mining Museum): housed in a mine tunnel, depicts methods of Bolivian mining
• Museo Nacional Antropológico Eduardo López Rivas(National Anthropological Museum): displays tools and information on the Chipayas and Urus tribes and Carnaval de Oruro.
• Churches: Catedral Nuestra Señora de la Asunción, Santuario de la Virgen del Socavón, Iglesia de Cunchupata
• Inti Raymi, a mine

Climate

The city of Oruro lies north of the salty lakes Uru-Uru and Poopó and it is just three hours (by bus) south from La Paz. Located at an altitude of 3709 meters above sea level, Oruro its well known for its cold weather.

Poopó Lake

Warmer temperatures generally take place during August, September and October, after the worst of the winter chills and before the summer rains.

From May to early July, night time temperatures combined with cool wind can bring the temperature down to about -20 °C.

Summers are warmer, but despite the fact of being an arid area, there’s quite a lot of rainfall between November and March.